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THE POLISH NOBLE ESTATE
A History of the Polish Gentry and Knighthood
(A translation from Niesiecki's Herbarz Polski Volume 1, 430- 444 "stan szlachecki").

English translation by Chevalier Leonard J. Suligowski, P.R., Polish Nobility Association Foundation - March 1998, revised June 7, 2001

Introduction to the Polish Noble Estate

To completely understand the meaning behind the honorable "noble estate," you must first "separate the fact from fiction." You have to reach beyond what is known, in order get a clear perspective of the beginnings of "Knighthood". The term Szlachta or gentry originated from the term,Lechici, as they were first called, until their descendants became known as the z Lechcicow or from the gentry, which later evolved into the word Slachta or Szlachta.

In the area that stretched from the Vistula river to the Oder river, long before the establishment of any form of Christianity, there were people known as the Kmiecie or commoners, and they shared the same communal rights as the Lechici. Available documents seem to say that the Piast family began as Kmieci, and later were elevated to the position of Polish rulers.

The Legend of the Three Brothers: Lech, Czech, and Rus

According to the old mythological, Legend of the Three Brothers, these brothers were named:(1)Lech(2) Czech and (3)Rus. These brothers eventually went their own ways, to establish what we now know as Poland (Lech), Czechoslovakia (Czech) and Ruthenia (Rus). The land that Lech founded was known as Lechistan, throughout the rest of ancient Europe, and its inhabitants were known as Lechites.

These tribal groups were very different. The Kmiecie had ownership of some land, both equal and free from division, on which they paid a form of tax. Finding a Rich landowner was next to impossible, but the one thing they had in their favor was equality. Conversely, among the Lechici were the two distinct classes of rich and poor, and no trace of equality. Between these two groups the relationships of the two social classes was quite obvious, and only through "mixed marriages" the Kmiecie began to slowly change over to the ways of the Lechici. In one way, they appeared to be on friendly terms, and fought for superiority, on the other hand, brawling became commonplace, and very often blood was shred. Occasionally, the Kmiecie came out ahead, but overall, the Lechici had the upper hand.

By the time Christianity made its appearance, these two tribes had made a name for themselves. When the western Europeans arrived, they brought a new form of fighting. Slowly but surely, these techniques were mastered by the Poles. And battles became bloodier.

Boleslaw "the Brave" (992-1025) just managed to quell the tempers and offer a solution to the demands of both tribes and harmony looked promising. However, after banishing Rixa his queen, civil war between the citizens erupted. The Kmiecie tried to gain possession of the crown and make the Lechici their lackeys. Kazimir I, Odnowiciel (the restorer 1038-1058) sided with the Lechici cause, and with his eventual victory, the Kmiecie had lost their higher citizenship status, dignities and fame, never to be regained again.

The Szlachta now chose to classify them as a lower class of servants and it was strictly forbidden for the Szlachta sons to marry Kmiecie daughters. For many years following, the Kmieci were held on a tight leash but during the reign of Boleslaw Smialy (The Bold, 1058-1079) they again rose, kidnapping the Lechici daughters (who, strangely enough were inclined to marry them) and took them off to the Lechici castles, where they were originally posted as guards. They then undertook the fortification of these castles, and waited for the Lechici warriors returning from was expeditions. And so, another civil war broke out, lasting for the next few years. Boleslaw Smialy had originally supported the Kmieci, but after they lost the battles, he had to hastily depart Poland leaving only his name and the shame as a memory of the defeated Kmiecie. All the castles were recaptured, and their occupants disarmed. After this loss it became a forgone conclusion that the vanquished would surely find it a next to impossible task of obtaining any position in the service of the public. They were now considered to be servants and their uprising later became known as "The Slavery Instigation. Later at about 1160, the Bishop of Krakow had determined that the former "mixed marriages" should be considered "Incestuous", however this wasn't to last and long time relationships through marriages helped keep the brotherhood continuos. During the reign of Wladyslaw Herman (1079-1102) Kmiecie were called upon to fill only the low level menial positions of public service. They also became landowners and for many years thereafter shared the same privileges as the Szlachta. Yet the position of the Szlachta was never considered clear or stable. They all had taken their names from the ancestral Lechici, but only those with power could hold leading positions and joined with the descendants of Krzywywousty (1102-1138) continued to divide all the Lechia (Poland). They began to share their hospitalities with foreigners of status, putting them on equal footing with the citizenry of Poland. And yet ironically, they never ceased to treat the lower classes of their own tribe with any less respect. Foreigners were privileged to continue their own customs and take up residences on farms and cities. During this process, a lot of old Polish freedoms and customs were forgotten.

For two hundred years after the people's defeat, (about 1300) there was still no form of equality to be found among the two groups. One still enjoying the dignity and respect as citizens, while the other continued in a subordinate state. Those of the upper class continued to pass on their rank and possessions to their sons. Only they could be so eminent and hold the highest offices. They ranked equally with that of a Bishop and, they were called "nobles" (szlachta).

The lower classes, whenever they were allowed in public service such as on the battlefield, could only serve as companions, whose rank had value only half that of the Nobility. Those Kmiecie who were fortunate enough to be approved as szlachta, were still considered at a lower level. They were classified as warriors, but were not able to receive all citizen's rights immediately. A time limit was established of a few generations to pass in order to "clean the blood" of the old Kmiecie race, and bring them up to the equal of the Nobleman's blood.

Warriors and Their Shields

Yet among all the Lords, very few were capable of leading a large number of armed warriors into battle, and not everyone was able to display his banners or insignia to which the second (or lower) class could rally to. Those who did, had to have the approval of their families prior to using the same sign or insignia. And that, was the beginning of the use of their "SHIELD, the "Family Clan". It was also the result of foreign influences by following and imitating their customs. But, if they chose not to follow the custom of some foreigner, they searched their family ancestral histories, and adopted them, calling them their own shields.

Thereafter the lower class warriors began to imitate the nobility because they needed some type of identity as well to add some importance to their names. This form of a nobility shield began to spread immensely. The really true noble families did not alter their seals or signs, but the lower class families saw to taking any shield that happen to appeal to them, since there were no laws covering the use of such shield designs. There was one law however, that stated "A son did not have the right to alter his family seal in the lifetime of his father". After the father's death his progeny had free rein to do as they wished. (There was no such thing as a College of Heraldry, or Visitations, officials acting on behalf of the crown to verify the usage of a noble Clan Shield)... Such was the state of affairs regarding relationships amongst the divided regions when they began to unite as one Poland. King Lokietek (1319-1331) the really first "King" of Poland had called to all its populace to cease their petty differences and come to the defense of the newly formed kingdom and to keep the unity preserved.

The New Nobility

This new brotherhood became the seed emerging as the "New Nobility" and all those descendants of the original Lechici began to understand this too well as the new Polish knighthood. The new Nobility forgot all their previous petty arguments and differences, and with such new impetus so developed along with additional circumstances were accepted without question, that afterward King Kazimierz the "Great" (1333-1370 son of Lokietek), in Great Poland decreed: "There should be no difference in taxes per head and all knight's fees shall be equal and the same". Later the areas of Kujawa and Mazowsze followed suit.

In 1359 there was a danger of war breaking out in the Woloszczyzna area in the forests of Ploniny. The Szlachta called the warrior caste to take the lead, as they always wanted to be the first in any public offices and all those activities occurring at the king's court. But sixty years later in 1420, King Jagiello, prompted by his wife's instigation, tried to have one of his stepsons-Jan Granowski-from Pilce Pilecki elevated to the rank of Count and make him a landowner. The king also had put "pressure" on the Bishop of Cracow, who at the time was also a chancellor, and have the Bishop put his seal on a specially prepared "ACT". The Bishop refused, citing it would be damaging and offensive to the equality of the Szlachta as a whole.

Polish noblemen, now as "dubbed" knights began to go out on their own to build their image. It now became fashionable to have their heritage litigated in the courts, during the period around 1347. This notion began gaining strength when a new law was established in 1412, ordering all litigation's require the support of the family arms. This was most advantageous for some of the old line families as well as the "cadet" branches, since the coat of arms were long established within their families than those of the rest of the szlachta. None the less, over a period of time all szlachta were able to present proofs of the arms of their ancestors.

Nobility was born of nobility, and by marriage, the wife became a "lady" (szlachianka). The heritage of the mother made no difference to the szlachta, and her ancestral line except that if the wife's family did have a family shield, these marriages or close relationships with non szlachta were avoided. Early on and only briefly, it was acceptable for a nobleman to own and operate a tavern or inn, but soon after it fell out of fashion and became disgraceful. The nobility agreed to restrict themselves to tending the lands and household, thus interpreting the meaning of the term Szlachta as "only the soil and the shield".

On rare occasions the relationship between the less prosperous nobles and the Kmiecie was tolerable, but soon laws enacted in 1419 and 1420 inferred that the two classes not mix the common folk, lest they lose the right to any assistance, as a result of damage incurred them. Until that time, the Kmiecie, as landowners could by right attack the credibility of the nobleman and his status as such. But the law of 1420 overruled that right. The Kmiecie were already established as landowners, but this would also cease as the nobleman began gaining more statue and power, and finally a new law was mandated that no city dweller could buy and own land. Land being the sole rightful ownership of the Szlachta only. And so, the Kmiecie's land owning ceased to exist, limiting their talents only as workers and not owners.

The Landed Nobility

This legal action now increased the power and importance of the nobility. They began to fashion themselves after the wealthiest families, even going so far as to take on the persona of similar characteristics. Not only did they establish themselves with coats of arms, and calling themselves "masters", they began adding names and prefixes to their own names, creating and using these new names as their Family appellations. Those having Christian names began adding some parts to it stemming from the area in which they lived and the land they owned. Instead of using the Latin term "de" they began using "ski" at the end of their names to incorporate what they owned. As an example, they used to write: z Czarnokowa. (from Czarnkow), z Obor, (from Obory), now they began calling themselves Czarnkowski, Oborski etc. These new names added to the coat of arms made it much easier to indicate the importance of family heritage and the true meaning of nobility that was equal for one and all.

The hereditary title "nobilis" could discern everyone from the non-szlachta (plebian) and verified the equality among the remainder of the knighthood, by the mere fact of their noble birth (bene natus). No one of this stature could aspire to any station higher than they actually held. All the qualities of heredity and honor detracted from the principles of noble pride. This idea soon became something of a nuisance, and looked upon with disfavor by the more wealthier Magnateria as something that diminished their importance. They had stopped using such titles as Graf, (Count) and Baron, as these gave no meaning to themselves in comparison to the foreign Lords of the west. These so called titles tended to classify the nobility as mere servants or subordinates, and not rulers. There had to be some other distinguishable form to set them aside from the rest of the nobility. At every occasion they began searching for any kind of validation of some long forgotten title, or when none were found, the other option was to Buy a New One!

Their motives were to establish family named estates or to develop unique precedents in their estates. Zygmunt Stary,"the Old" (1506-1548) refused to allow the latter, and as a result, the estate of Tarnowski became null and void in 1519. This carried over to the exclusive use of Lubranieckis and Godziembows. Then quietly the various families began to adopt the title of "Count" which they had no difficulty with the usage. The Czarnkowski family balked and stood by the rule of showing respect to the traditional family name. Others recalled that a few generations earlier there were some "Comites" (masters) among their ancestors. Others however purchased the titles of Count from foreign sovereigns.

Titles Received form Foreign Sovereigns

Rafal Leszczynski, while serving under Emperor Frederick III, received the nomination of Count in 1476, additionally with the county of Leszno, (as if the emperor could also parcel out the Polish lands). Also during Sigmunt Stary's reign Lukasz Gorka, Stanislaw Ostrorog and Jan Tarnowski took for themselves the hereditary title of "Count," (comites sacru romani imperii). Yet, the proud stubbornness of the Koscieleckis and Szywlowieckis refused to accept these type of rewards, saying it was beneath their status to accept. The Odrowans (Odrowaz) clan, conversely took on the title of count by merely marrying a princess of Mazowie. These differences made little or no impact on the noble pride, as something of more importance was about to occur. Some one hundred thousand of the nobility had gathered near Lwow in reference to the Kokoszan war. It was here they made their demands of King Zygmunt Stary for additional freedoms and privileges. But the anger of the commoners and the obstinacy of the King quelled the proposed coup. Yet, some of the nobility were fortunate enough to obtain a limited amount of exclusive privileges, and subsequently their desires to be different from the others diminished, however. The ultimated goal of equality of the noble estate was firmly established and no further threat to it was on the horizon from anyone, at least for the time being.

On occasion, the services rendered to the crown could achieve elevation over others. It required no special attire to be worn as a significant form of identification. The fact that they carried a sword and wore the signet ring bearing the family shield designated them as equals in the eyes of the nobility. Nothing could make a nobleman any more important in the eyes of others from the knight that he was.

Lithuanian Small Landowners (Kniaze)

The situation that existed in Lithuania was quite a different kind of nobility. There was no "Gentry" per se, only the kniaze or "small landowners". The nobility of Lithuania did not share the same privileges as did the Polish gentry, but they expected to receive and enjoy the same type of dignity, as it was promised to them at the Treaty of Horodlo in 1413, when 47 Polish nobleman adopted and bestowed to a like number of Lithuanian kniaze their family clan arms. It started with the leading Lithuanian families, such as the RADZIWILLS, who had received foreign titles from the German kingdom, thus making is easier for them to equalize with the other kniazie of Lithuania. No one in Lithuania questioned this right to do so, because they were the wealthiest families with expansive land holdings and much power. Other foreign titles were not in much use by the other princes of Lithuania.

Certain individuals from a particular area located on the Lithuanian/Ruthenian border, "Gmina Lubycz" decided that they were kniazie and dukes and self styled themselves with these titles for many future generations.

King Zygmunt August had ruled in Lithuania in a way that he could not in Poland. Zigmunt was considered the Lithuanian heir apparent in his efforts to unite Lithuania closer to Poland he established the Coaequatii in 1564, whereby he intended to establish a Noblemen's department council or parliament known as the Sejm(senate). He began to ennoble some of the more powerful landowners (Magnateria), regardless of their religious beliefs. He also relieved some individuals from the Kniaze or gentry service, by making them freemen, and assigning land to them as a reward for past deeds incurred during wartime. So, the king had granted to the people from Gmina Lubycz the required privileges and there were indeed many families like them in Lithuania and Ruthenia, and no one doubted them. In Poland there were no such things as dukedoms or principalities, however some bishops holding seats in the Sejm had the title of "Prince" (Warminskis & Siewierskis) but dared not to make it known to the general public. Many of these titles were removed from some lands and instead, they were labeled voivodships, such as Mazowsze. One such dukedom, -Pruskie Krolewieckie - maintained a seat in the senate, however the knighthood resented them, branding them an insult to the office of senator.

It seemed rather amusing that to the Polish gentry's way of thinking, the Lithuanian title of kniaze seemed to have had its descent from a sort of primieval wilderness, and when the two countries were unified, the Poles found it necessary to equalize the Lithuanian gentry with that of themselves.

There had been some mediators voicing in favor of the Szlachta to relinquish their demands and allow the Lithuanian gentry to keep their titles, just so long as it did not undermine the Polish nobleman. This group of mediators included such family names as Ostrorog, Czartoryski, Teczyncki and other families of equal prominence, both from Poland and Lithuania. During the Warsaw Sejm recess of 1564, when Lithuania jointed Poland, the following names were mentioned as Kniaze to whom the concessions had served: Radiziwill, Czartoryski, Zbarazki and Lukomski. In the Unity of 1569, it had been so stipulated that some of the Kniaze titles would be kept by those families of Lithuania, Kijowskie, Wolynskie and Braclawskie viovodships, namely to the kniaze Ostroski, Czartoryski, Sanguszko, Wisniowiecki, Tenczynski and Olesnicki. It should be noted however, that the Dukedoms of the Teczynski's and Olesnicki's were not in fact Lithuanian, but in the Polish Crown lands,. which fell under the reign of King Zygmunt August (1548-1572). During King Batory's reign (1576-1586) the Radziwills established in 1579 the so-called "Ordynacje" (Majorats) in the areas of Olyka Nieswiez, Mir and Klecko. Jan Zamoyski followed suit in Zamosc; Ostrogski likewise in 1618 in Ostrog and Dubno, and Myszkowski did so in Pinczow.

Foreign Influences

This was considered to be an important move because it aided in assuring the strongholds and fortresses needed to defend the Republic and to keep the schools functioning in order to propagate education. That was all that was supposed to be established, and nothing more. Zygmunt Myszkowski while traveling to Italy, became friends with the Prince of Mantua-Gonzaga, and from him received the title of Marquis. This title was also confirmed by Pope Clement VIII and then was within his properties of the Pinczow ordynacja. However, other noblemen from Poland soon found out about this event and rejected all foreign titles and honors given to them by sovereigns of other countries as they felt that foreign honors were unworthy of the dignity of the Polish Kingdoms and the customs of the Motherland. Mikolaj Firlej and Jan Zamoyski both resented any foreign nominations, but the latter, when marrying King Batory's daughter, made his wedding so pompous that the Polish gentry were outraged.

There was something else about that wedding that didn't set right...in seeking the relationship with the ruling family from the area of Siedmiogrod, which was then considered to be a dukedom. Thus, the Wisniowieckis became related to the Mohyly and ruling in Moldavia. Jerzy Mniszek had allowed his daughter to marry the Czar of Moscow in 1603. Jan Radziwill then married the daughter of the Marquis of Brandenburgia. While Zygmunt the III Wasa still reigned (1587-163) most of the wealthy families of Poland were marrying into other foreign ruling families, only to gain more power.

As far as the Kniazie titles were concerned, there was a certain upheaval in Lithuania as Kniaze Olekiewicze made a strong protest against the diminishing powers of the Kniaze Senatorialship that were being removed from power. They lost anyway. Many others however, simply decided it would be just easier to drop their titles.

Maximilian II, Emperor of Germany had nominated two counties to the Polish noblemen, one was Wisnicz going to Sebastian Lubomirski, and the other, Koden, to Mikolaj Sapieha. Emperor Ferdinand II was more generous, as he nominated the counties to Marcin Krasicki, Kasper Donhoff, and others. He also offered the county to Stanislaw Sapieha who refused, but two others, Stanislaw Lubomirski and Jerzy Ossolinski did accept the offer.

Jerzy Ossolinski, Poland's chancellor inherited Teczykn after the Teczynski family line became extinct. He established the Order of the Immaculate Conception, which was approved by Pope Clement VIII, as well as the Sancti Romanii Imperii from Emperor Ferdinand II. In that same year other lords received the nominations of prince to Alexander Koniecpolski and Stanislaw Lubomirski, and both were confirmed. The knighthood was not offended when the senate members began calling themselves "Older brothers" and the gentry the "Younger brothers". The difference between the lords and the gentry was accepted without question. It did not seem to offend them when they were called szaraczki or "the grey ones" (from the color of their costumes). Under the reign of Wladyslaw IV (1632-1648), the gentry could no longer put up with the discriminations and debasements. There developed a disregard for their privileges and principles. By the enactment of the law of 1638, the gentry were forbidden the using of foreign titles and they could not accept them. Another law, in 1641, repeated these provisions, with an addition of more equal rights, and the inherited titles were never to be mentioned in public.

Ossolinski stated that the titles he obtained from the German Emperor no longer had meaning to him, and Lubomirski followed with the statement that he did not accept any titles from either Ferdinand II or Ferdinand III. The gentry did not stop there. Another law was enacted to prevent anyone from using either foreign titles, shields, ornaments or seals. Doing so would bring dishonor. Domestic infighting ceased, rather abruptly, when Poland was overrun by Cossack invasions and insurrections brought another major threat to the country's independence.

The gentle living and hospitality of the Polish gentry made it quite easy for the foreigners to enter the circles of nobility. Thus other modifications had to be made. The mixing of lifestyles did not sit easily with the land owners. They felt uncomfortable and had many concerns. Before Jagiello became king and began introducing new laws, the gentry mandated that only native Poles could hold any public offices. However, it was quite easy for a foreigner to obtain an official position. At this time, Poland was divided into small principalities. One landowner seemed to be just as foreign as another. however After the Union of Lublin (1569), a Pole living in Lithuania or a Lithuanian living in Poland, were no longer considered foreigners.

Only in ducal Prussia did they restrict such privileges to members of their own communities. A Prussian could hold any public office. However, a Pole or a Lithuanian could not, unless he was native born in that territory.

The king did have the right to ennoblke or nominate citizens. This was called indygenat or the "naturalization process". This law could be used twofold, for an individual citizen, or for groups of certain professions. King Zygmunt Stary used this law in 1535, nominating all doctors from the Cracow University. The nominations were then extended to other universities, such as Krolewiec and Wilno. Nobilitation did not occur very often. But many times the local or regional princes had the ability to ennoble, and did so acting in the sovereign's name. The king, at times, found himself in difficult circumstances due to certain political situations when ever he was involved in such ceremonies.

The Parliament of 1578

The Parliamentary Session of 1578 established a new law which prevented ennobling without the approval of the Parliament, with the exclusion of the hetman (Commanders-in-Chief). In 1607, the nobles registered and publicized them in the future constitutional sessions. All others had to be introduced to the parliament by hetmans, gentry, senators, deputies and ministers. Parliament no longer let the kings make citizens noble. The law of 1607 mandated that any act of nobility would have to be approved by the parliament. Anyone who would accept a non-gentry into their clan shield without the knowledge and consent of the Sejm or Parliament would lose his own nobility. This change of status was not very important, because the new noblemen (novus homo) were actually the old low classed companions, who obtained all land rights. Nobles owned land, but could not obtain tenancy based on his title alone, this was called bene merentium. A new noble's grandson could noit become a knight until in the third generation. This clause was disputed among friends or at small parliamentary sessions. When rights to a major estate was to be discussed, where the rights of the Starost (nobleman holding an estate in crown lands) were to be decided, the Sejm had to be called on to review the situation.

Forfeiture of Titles

If someone obtained their nobility illegally, his entire estate would be forfeit. It would be taken Jure Caduco or by the law of forfeiture, and awarded to the original claimant. The Starosts and tenants were responsible for preventing such illegal claims. The killing of an illegal nobleman went unpunished. However, if someone was accused of illegality obtaining his nobility and he could prove it was earned legally,in court, or before a session of Parliament, then the falsely accused could ask for the head of his accuser. At times, the changes in the clan arms was allowed for knights (by adoption of others into the family). It was also punishable to usurp or append another's clan shield as his own. Litigation's abounded as a result of these rules, and it became fashionable for the gentry to be involved in such legalities.

Careers in Government

Those of equal birth and possessions, bene natus et possessionatus, could choose his own career, They could be an envoy (woyawod), a public servant, even a king! Through his possessions and wealth a citizen could establish his importance. He could not hold a public office without having means of support (public service did not pay much). Some senators held the more important seats in the governing body (such as castellan or woyawod) because of their inheritance. No one seemed to resent them since this was established in previous generations. Those seats were kept not only by inheritance, but due to their constancy, meritorious service, contributions to the kingdom or relations and influence they had established throughout their years of tenure. They were given their seats as compensation for all past services, and they could retire with dignity. Whenever they moved from one seat to another, it was acknowledged that their importance and influence, on behalf of services to the crown, was duly recognized. It was very unusual to see a senator occupying the same seat for a period of 30 years. Normally, after a few years, he died leaving the seat to someone else. In order to represent the crown holdings these positions required enormous wealth. Some could obtain a seat, in the Senate or Parliament, because they had friends who gave good service and pffered their support. Their names were recorded together with those of their families. As the years passed, some senators' families became extinct, thus leaving the seats to new families. This was not good enough for some of the gentry's brothers who called themselves the "Older Brothers" or starsze bracia.

The gentry, with their various rules and regulations, placed themselves in the position of the protecting the state of knighthood. During conventions, pacts were repeated with some rules, and some newer rules were added. Fatigued by the usual woes of wars, the advantages of the gentry slowly began to erode and become limited. In the beginning, they either could not, or did not, see just what was happening. Later,it was all but impossible not to notice all the events taking place right before their very eyes. The glorious Polish gentry was building from the past centuries, and then began to fade away like the glowing embers of a dying fire.

A king's coronation was a grandiose and magnificent ceremony. The Polish-Lithuianian Commonwealth wanted to surround its king with all the splendor and pomp of his majesty. In the morning the anointed king would leave the castle, where he would receive the oaths of fealty from the populace on the steps of the city hall. The King sat before the town hall, and with his two swords, he dubbed knights from both the gentry and non-gentry. This foreign custom had started with the reign of King Zygmunt Stary. This was all for show, and those who were knighted in this fashion were of no consequence. These ceremonies held little importance compared to the rituals performed in the west. In time, the dubbings became passé and finally were forgotten. No literature, poem or songs sang praises to these activities, as they was in western countries.

All cities had the same laws, and the king ruled in them in the same way and with the same principles as the gentry. There was no patrycyat or "city gentry" like there were in the western countries. They were equality dominated, among the townsmen in all Polish cities. Many of the townsmen, however, aspired for higher prerogatives and honors, and kept petitioning the king for them until, in due course, they were obtained. One such petition was the Serwitoryat a type of nobility that excluded commoners from the positions in the lower public offices, and restricted them to answering only in front of the king or the court.

The cities began protesting, citing it as degrading to their own judiciary systems. Anyone who received the Serwitoryat could call himself a nobleman, however, he was not a Polish nobleman, a foreign nobleman or of any knighthood. He was in fact, a king's nobleman. The Saxons ceased favoring the serwitoryats. This caused a multiplication of royal secretaries, as they kept awarding to both gentry and non-gentry alike the titles of Konsylierzy or "councilmen" of war, of law, secrecy, commerce and the treasury. The title had no actual meaning to the Polish knights as they were only of a royal reference. The king had no right to nominate a Polish gentry with foreign titles or honors such as: baron, marquis, or count, since they were recognized as having no real value but, he could award titles to foreigners.

It was seen as erroneous when King Michal Korybut (1669-1673) accepted, according to the conditions of all orders, the Order of the Golden Fleece. An even worse reaction was given to King Sobieski when he did not refuse to accept the Order of the Holy Spirit from King Louis XIV, or August II arriving with the Danish Order of the Elephant. Some years later, during the Swedish invasion while being surrounded by the enemy at Tykocin with a small group of swordsmen who elected to stay with him, he distributed among them the knight's medal of the Order of the White Eagle, claiming that he had only re-established the old award attributed to King Lokietek some one hundred years ago. Strangely enough, no one opposed it. The Saxons did not award it to many and the natives who received it used it as a decorative bauble rather than an honor.

In foreign countries, the traveling Poles were asked about various honors and titles existing in Poland, especially of starosta, staroscic (translated as count). When returning to Poland the lords liked to call themselves counts and to register these titles in public acts. The emperor's court was very benevolent in giving away titles. Some of the Polish lords as Benedykt and Kazimir Sapieha refused to accept the honor even after Jozef Sulkowski accepted it in 1733. Dukedoms became quite common: then the principalities were offered, but they could not be in the same category as the counties or dukedoms and just a few could be awarded with this honor. The Radziwills, Sanguszkos and Czartoryski families; based on the Union of Lublin pact, could use the title "Prince". In the act of the Confederacy of 1733, the other families who took the "Princely" title were Francizek Woroniecki, Michal Czetwertynski as well as the Massalski, Osinski, and Polubinski families.

The renewal of the old and forgotten titles was definitely not to the gentry's liking and with a new law they forbade the chancellor's office to issue them. The multiplication of titles was also promoted by the works of Niesiecki and Dunczewski (1738-1758) and further by the eagerness of Joseph Aleksander Jablonowski (1743-1749). With the heraldry accomplishments and splendor, he retrieved all the principle and kniazie titles, basing the law on the Union of Lublin pact. the long and un-parliamentary years allowed the knighthood to develop all that was so patiently accepted before, and when the time of King Poniatowski's reign came (1764-1795) the gentry was unconcerned. The Pacta Conventa of 1764 recommended to King Stanislaw that the nobilities would take place, not necessarily with the majority of votes in the Sejm. This was not the time when the scartabellat was described for the first time, until it had been preserved with the customs, experience and special nobilites. King Stanislaw decided not to break that law and not to appoint the warrior class to landowning. The parliamentary confederation allowed for all the nobilities and indygenats without disagreements and skartabellatu, done accordingly with the stricto jure scartabellatu or "strict law of naturalization," and forbade the un-parliamentary nobilizing, or designating newer ones.

The response from Prussia was the nomination of twelve (12) indygenats to Poles. Lithuania, however, stated that it did not submit, and by its own statute gave nobilities to many novices, At the same time the Sejm Confederacy granted a principality to King Poniatowski's brothers and the king as well. King August himself decorated his brothers with the Order of the White Eagle, and later established the new Order of St. Stanislaw. Under the circumstances, after a long break lasting from 1726 to 1764, the indygenats and nobilities were distributed at each Sejm or Parliament session. Due to all the past changes, some families felt their nobility would be doubted, and demanded that the king reviewed of all those former cases. Some years later a similar procedure had been requested in 1775. According to that request, King Stanislaw gave away so called dyplomata, which were sealed and put together in a special certificate. Families possessing such a document could not be accused of being non noble. In 1768 the Sapieha family requested recognition by the sejm of their principality. Adam Poninski, in 1775, obtained the principality at the Sejm for his family. Thus it was not necessary to seek these titles in foreign countries since they could be obtained each time the Sejm was in session.

The Constitutional Sejm, of 1788-1792, did not consider those issues, but were interested in the knighthood state and its limitations. The gentry families were counted within the crown and though the count was not complete, it did total some 38,314 noble families. Piotr Malachowski had counted a larger number in his work published in Luck. This work included those families that possessed clan shields of the nobleman. The Constitutional Sejm noticed that in some countries like Wolhyna and the Ukraine there were families called Gracjalista. Although they did not possess a family clan shield, they were allowed to the small parliamentary sessions. There were many and various irregularities and doubts during this count.